Brutalism is a striking architectural movement that emerged in the mid-20th century, marked by its bold use of raw concrete (béton brut), intricate geometric forms, and a steadfast emphasis on functionality. This distinctive style arose as a response to the pressing needs of post-war reconstruction and was profoundly influenced by the ideals of modernism. Initially associated with social housing and civic buildings, Brutalism soon evolved into a wider architectural philosophy, garnering both fervent supporters and vocal critics.

The roots of Brutalism can be traced back to the 1950s and the pioneering modernist principles articulated by the renowned architect Le Corbusier. The term "Brutalism" itself originates from the French phrase "béton brut," which translates to "raw concrete," aptly encapsulating the materiality and aesthetic ethos of the movement. This architectural style was passionately propagated by British architects Alison and Peter Smithson, who championed a socially progressive approach to design that prioritized community and accessibility.

Their notable works, such as the Hunstanton School (1954) in Norfolk, UK, exemplify the Brutalist ethos, showcasing not only the beauty of exposed materials but also a functional approach that outright dismissed unnecessary decorative embellishments. The movement gained significant traction across the globe, particularly in state-funded endeavors, university campuses, and various urban planning projects, leaving an indelible mark on the architectural landscape of the era.

Key Characteristics of Brutalist Architecture

1. Materiality – Brutalist structures are distinguished by their bold use of exposed concrete, often harmoniously combined with elements such as brick, steel, or glass, creating a striking visual impact that highlights the raw essence of the materials.
2. Massive, Monolithic Forms – These buildings typically present a formidable presence, characterized by their block-like, fortress-like silhouettes that evoke a sense of strength and permanence, emphasizing both weight and grand scale.
3. Geometric and Repetitive Patterns – Brutalism employs powerful geometric lines and modular design elements, utilizing repetition to convey a sense of rhythm and order throughout the structure, resulting in a visually arresting ensemble.
4. Functionalism – At the heart of this architectural movement lies a commitment to practicality, favoring streamlined designs with minimal ornamentation, where every element serves a clear purpose, reflecting a no-frills philosophy.
5. Honesty of Materials – In a celebration of authenticity, the materials in Brutalist architecture are often left in their natural state, showcasing unique textures and imperfections that tell the story of their constitution, fostering a connection between the structure and its environment.
6. Integration with Urban Planning – Brutalist architecture frequently plays a pivotal role in the urban landscape, designed to complement city planning through the creation of expansive public spaces and interconnected structures, encouraging community interaction and accessibility.

Brutalism’s Societal Role, Criticism and Decline

Brutalist architecture emerged as a powerful symbol of socialist ideals and state-sponsored initiatives, resonating deeply within the urban landscapes of Europe and North America. Governments harnessed the bold, unadorned forms of Brutalism to create affordable public housing, innovative educational institutions, and striking civic buildings that reflected a commitment to accessibility and community. In Eastern Europe, particularly throughout the Soviet Bloc, this architectural style found a prominent place in the fabric of socialist urban planning, manifesting in expansive public spaces and imposing government edifices that conveyed strength and purpose. The raw concrete and dramatic geometries of Brutalism became a canvas for the aspirations of a society striving toward progress and equality.

Despite its initial idealism, Brutalism faced significant criticism by the late 1970s and 1980s. Many people considered the stark, monolithic structures to be cold, unwelcoming, and oppressive. Numerous Brutalist social housing projects fell into disrepair, which further contributed to the perception of Brutalism as dystopian. Additionally, raw concrete is susceptible to weathering, staining, and structural deterioration, leading to high maintenance costs. As neoliberal policies gained traction in the 1980s, large-scale state-funded projects decreased, and Brutalism fell out of favor. 

 Brutalism stands as one of the most polarizing and significant architectural movements of the 20th century. Frequently characterized by its raw, unadorned structures, this style draws criticism for its austere appearance. However, it encapsulates a distinctive architectural philosophy that champions authenticity, utilitarianism, and deep integration with the urban landscape. Whether embraced or reviled, the influence of Brutalism on the realms of architecture and urbanism is undeniable, leaving an enduring legacy that continues to ignite inspiration within contemporary design circles.  

Rock-cut architecture stands as a testament to the remarkable ingenuity and creativity of ancient civilizations. These extraordinary structures, meticulously carved into solid rock formations, showcase a harmonious blend of engineering prowess and artistic flair. They often embody the deep religious, cultural, and political aspirations of their creators, revealing the values and beliefs of the societies that built them. Scattered across various parts of the globe, these architectural marvels evoke a sense of wonder and intrigue, drawing visitors to explore their intricate designs and rich historical significance. Each rock-hewn site tells a unique story, inviting reflection on the incredible skills and dedication of the artisans who shaped them from the earth itself.

The rock-cut architecture boasts a rich history that spans thousands of years, with some of the earliest examples traced back to prehistoric cave dwellings. This unique form of construction differs significantly from traditional freestanding buildings, as it involves the careful removal of material from solid rock rather than assembling individual components. The technique demands a high level of expertise in stoneworking, requiring artisans to possess a deep understanding of both the physical properties of the rock being used and various stone shaping methodologies.

These remarkable creations serve as a testament to human ingenuity and craftsmanship, offering valuable insights into the architectural practices of ancient civilizations.

Ancient craftsmen, leveraging simple yet effective tools such as chisels, hammers, and pickaxes, meticulously carved out elaborate facades, spacious chambers, and intricate decorative details from the rock face. Their work often included sophisticated engineering techniques to ensure structural integrity and aesthetic appeal. Remarkably, despite the limited technology and tools available at the time, these artisans were able to create structures that not only exhibit a high degree of complexity but also display durability that has allowed many of these rock-cut sites to withstand the test of time.

Famous Examples Across the World

1. India: The Ajanta and Ellora Caves

India is home to some of the most remarkable examples of rock-cut architecture. The Ajanta Caves, dating from the 2nd century BCE to the 5th century CE in Maharashtra, consist of Buddhist monasteries and prayer halls that are adorned with exquisite murals and sculptures. Nearby are the Ellora Caves, which were created between the 6th and 10th centuries CE. These caves feature Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain temples, including the awe-inspiring Kailasa Temple, a monolithic masterpiece carved entirely from a single rock.

2. Petra, Jordan

Petra, often referred to as the "Rose City" because of its pink-hued sandstone, served as the capital of the Nabataean Kingdom around the 1st century BCE. Its famous structures, the Treasury (Al-Khazneh) and the Monastery (Ad-Deir), are excellent examples of the Nabataeans' skill in rock carving, showcasing a blend of Hellenistic and Middle Eastern architectural styles.

3. Cappadocia, Turkey

The volcanic landscapes of Cappadocia are adorned with rock-cut churches, monasteries, and dwellings that were carved into the soft tuff stone by early Christians seeking refuge from persecution. The Göreme Open-Air Museum, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, features stunning frescoes within these ancient sanctuaries.

4. Lalibela, Ethiopia

During the 12th and 13th centuries, King Lalibela commissioned the construction of eleven rock-hewn churches in Ethiopia, symbolizing the "New Jerusalem." These monolithic structures, including the iconic Church of Saint George, are carved into the earth and interconnected by a network of tunnels and trenches.

5. The Hypogeum of Ħal-Saflieni, Malta

Dating back to 4000 BCE, the Hypogeum is one of the world’s oldest underground rock-cut structures. This Neolithic sanctuary was used for burials and rituals, featuring intricately carved chambers and red ochre wall paintings.

Rock-cut architecture has traditionally played a critical role in various spiritual and religious practices across different cultures. These meticulously carved spaces were designed specifically for worship, meditation, and burial, creating sanctuaries that fostered a deep connection between the physical and the divine. The use of stone, a material that withstands the passage of time, symbolizes eternity and serves as a tangible representation of the beliefs held by many ancient civilizations regarding the afterlife and the sacred.

In addition to their spiritual significance, these impressive structures also served as a reflection of the social and political stature of their patrons. Wealthy individuals, rulers, and religious leaders often invested considerable resources, including labor and materials, into their construction. This investment not only showcased their power and influence but also aimed to immortalize their legacy within the cultural and historical narrative of their society.

Rock-cut architecture stands as a testament to both the spiritual aspirations and the hierarchical dynamics of the civilizations that created these remarkable edifices.

Despite their durability, rock-cut monuments face threats from natural erosion, human activity, and climate change. Preservation efforts, including careful restoration and protective measures, are crucial for safeguarding these irreplaceable cultural treasures.

Asia Minor, an area that corresponds to the western part of modern-day Turkey, has had a profound influence on the evolution of modern Greek architecture. This region is steeped in a rich and complex history, characterized by vibrant cultural exchanges and an intricate fusion of diverse architectural styles that have developed over many centuries.

The architectural landscape of Asia Minor is particularly notable for its historical layers, which encompass Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman influences. Each of these periods left indelible marks on the architectural vocabulary of the region, resulting in a unique blend of design elements, materials, and craftsmanship that can still be observed today.

The impact of Asia Minor is especially pronounced in Greece’s built environment, particularly following the Greek War of Independence (1821-1832) and the population exchanges that occurred in the 1920s. These events prompted a significant transformation in architecture, as Greek refugees from Asia Minor brought with them their unique architectural styles, traditions, and cultural practices, enriching the Greek architectural narrative.

During this transitional period, an amalgamation of architectural elements emerged, reflecting the diverse heritage of the people. Structures built during this time often feature a combination of neoclassical styles, local vernacular forms, and elements influenced by Ottoman architecture, such as intricate tile work and spacious courtyards.

EMBASSY OF THE UNITED STATES, 91 Vasilissis Sofias

This blending of styles not only symbolizes the resilience and adaptability of Greek communities but also creates a lasting legacy that continues to inform contemporary Greek architecture. The echoes of Asia Minor's architectural ingenuity resonate throughout Greece, providing a visual testament to the region's historical significance and the vibrant cultural identity that has emerged from its rich past. Here are some key contributions:

1. Byzantine Influence

• Asia Minor served as the vibrant heartland of the Byzantine Empire, and this rich cultural heritage is evident in the architectural landscape of Greece. The era's hallmark features, such as grand domed basilicas, majestic churches, and serene monasteries, left an indelible mark on Greek architecture. The use of imposing domes and the artistry of intricate mosaics combined with the innovative cross-in-square layouts, exemplified by the magnificent Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, were not only adopted but skillfully reimagined in Greek religious structures.
• The iconic Byzantine cross-in-square plan emerged as a defining characteristic of Greek Orthodox churches, signifying a deep reverence for Byzantine architectural traditions. These structures were often adorned with mosaic icons and lavish marble cladding, which were quintessential elements inherited directly from the rich artistic legacy of the Byzantine era in Asia Minor.

2. Ottoman Heritage

• The Ottoman period in Asia Minor witnessed an architectural renaissance, particularly in bustling cities like Smyrna (modern-day Izmir) and Constantinople (Istanbul). This era flourished with architectural marvels such as the külliye—complexes that ingeniously combined mosques, educational institutions, and communal spaces—and the grand domed mosques that came to symbolize the period. These styles profoundly influenced contemporary Greek architecture as they evolved.
• In the wake of the population exchange in the 1920s, a wave of Greek refugees from Asia Minor migrated to Greece, bringing with them the rich tapestry of Ottoman architectural traditions. This included the striking use of decorative Iznik tiles, exquisite stone carvings, and the seamless integration of traditional Turkish designs into Greek buildings and interiors, creating a fusion of aesthetics that enriched the architectural narrative.

3. Neoclassical Movement

• The Neoclassical style that emerged in Greece during the 19th century can often be traced back to the influence of architects from Asia Minor. Many of these professionals were educated in cosmopolitan centers like Constantinople and Smyrna, where they absorbed both classical and Ottoman architectural principles. Renowned figures such as Giuseppe Valadier and Stamatios Kleanthes played pivotal roles in shaping Athens' architectural identity, grounded in these diverse traditions.
• The enduring legacy of the classical ruins in Asia Minor, particularly those from renowned sites like Ephesus, served as a wellspring of inspiration for the development of Neoclassical buildings in Greece. This movement was not merely about aesthetics; it reflected Greece's aspiration to connect its modern identity with the grandeur of its ancient past.

4. Urban Planning and Design

• The urban planning found in cities across Asia Minor, notably the well-structured Smyrna (Izmir), showcased thoughtfully designed layouts with wide boulevards, lively public squares, and a blend of neoclassical and Ottoman architectural styles. These elements began to shape the modern Greek approach to city planning, affecting major urban centers including Thessaloniki and Athens.
• The destruction of Smyrna in 1922 led to the migration of Greek refugees who brought invaluable insights into urban development. Their experiences fostered a modern approach to the cityscape, interweaving aspects of their Ottoman and Byzantine heritage, leading to a revitalized architectural environment that balanced tradition and modernity.

5. Revival of Traditional Materials and Craftsmanship

• The exquisite craftsmanship rooted in Asia Minor, particularly in areas such as carpentry, marblework, and tile-making, played a pivotal role in shaping modern Greek architecture. Traditional features like tiled roofs, colorful ceramic tiles, and the use of polychrome stone became hallmarks of this architectural evolution.
• The embellishment of facades in many buildings from the 19th and early 20th centuries showcases ornate designs influenced by the detailed plasterwork and vibrant tile mosaics originating from Asia Minor. These decorative elements serve as a testament to the artistic collaboration between cultures.

6. Influence of Refugee Communities

• After the Greek-Turkish population exchange of 1923, thousands of Greek refugees from Asia Minor settled in varied Greek cities such as Athens, Thessaloniki, and Kavala. These migrants infused their new communities with knowledge of traditional building practices, significantly enriching the architectural landscape.
• The Greek Revival houses constructed by these refugees often displayed a unique blend of stylistic influences derived from both Ottoman and Byzantine traditions, resulting in hybrid forms that beautifully reflected the merging of historical styles with contemporary needs.

7. Art Deco and Modernism

• As Greece entered the 20th century, the influence of European architectural movements like Art Deco and Modernism began to emerge, creating a fascinating juxtaposition with traditional regional styles. Refugees from Asia Minor, especially those hailing from cosmopolitan Smyrna, were crucial in bringing modernist ideas to Greece after being exposed to them in European cities.
• This cultural exchange fostered a synthesis of architectural styles, culminating in a distinct Greek identity characterized by a harmonious blend of neoclassical, modern, and traditional Turkish influences, capturing the dynamic evolution of Greek architecture throughout the 20th century.

OTE HEADQUARTERS, 99 Leoforos Kifisias, Maroussi

The influx of refugees in the early 20th century served as a pivotal moment in this architectural evolution, as these individuals brought with them a wealth of cultural and artistic traditions. This intermingling of influences has enriched the design of various structures—ranging from public buildings and private residences to sacred religious spaces—infusing them with a unique character that reflects the complex historical narratives of both Greece and Asia Minor. Consequently, the architectural language that emerges from this synthesis is not just a visual representation; it is a testament to the shared history and diverse experiences that have shaped the modern Greek landscape.

The architectural landscape of modern Greece owes a significant debt to the rich heritage of Asia Minor, where a harmonious blend of Byzantine, Ottoman, and indigenous architectural styles has profoundly influenced Greek urban design and identity.

The Metropolitan Area Outer Underground Discharge Channel (MAOUDC), situated just outside Tokyo, stands as one of the most remarkable engineering achievements in the world. It was designed to address the frequent flooding issues that have affected Japan’s capital. This underground system exemplifies innovative civil engineering and effective environmental management.

Purpose and Design

The MAOUDC (Metropolitan Area Outer Discharge Channel) was developed to safeguard the Tokyo metropolitan area from flooding due to heavy rainfall and rising water levels. Japan is frequently subjected to intense downpours, and Tokyo is particularly susceptible because of its dense infrastructure and low-lying geography. In operation since 2006, the MAOUDC serves as a vast underground drainage and flood control system.

Japan's Metropolitan Area Outer Underground Discharge Channel is a Marvel of Engineering

This facility comprises a network of tunnels, reservoirs, and large vertical shafts designed to collect and redirect excess rainwater. One of its most impressive features is the G-Cans Underground Temple, a spacious cavern that houses enormous concrete pillars, each reaching about 20 meters in height. This underground "temple" functions as a reservoir, temporarily storing water before it is pumped into the nearby Edo River.

The Metropolitan Area Outer Discharge Channel (MAOUDC) has played a pivotal role in substantially lowering the risk of flooding throughout the sprawling metropolis of Tokyo, ensuring the protection of both the local economy and the safety of its residents. As a result of this advanced flood control system, the surrounding urban areas have become considerably more resilient against the adverse effects of extreme weather events, which are projected to intensify due to the ongoing challenges posed by climate change. The MAOUDC’s remarkable capability to prevent extensive flood damage has led to the preservation of invaluable resources, saving millions of dollars that would otherwise have been lost due to economic disruptions and property damage resulting from flooding incidents.

It functions as an underground water storage reservoir, forming a monumental system for floodwater diversion.

Key Features

• Size and Scale: The MAOUDC spans 6.3 kilometers and includes five enormous vertical shafts. The largest shaft, the Tama River Shaft, is 30 meters deep and 20 meters in diameter.
• Capacity: The system can handle up to 200 tons of water per minute and manage up to one million cubic meters of floodwater in a single event.
• Pump System: A network of powerful pumps moves the collected water through the system, ensuring rapid discharge and preventing overflow that could inundate the urban landscape.

The Metropolitan Area Outer Underground Discharge Channel stands as an impressive illustration of how engineering can tackle urban challenges. By leveraging underground space and cutting-edge technologies, Japan has crafted a crucial infrastructure asset that ensures the future safety of Tokyo. This initiative exemplifies how innovative design can effectively mitigate the effects of natural disasters in densely populated regions.

This is the only entrance (and exit) to the "Underground Temple".

Georgi Stoilov, an esteemed architect from Bulgaria, is renowned primarily for his iconic design of the Buzludzha Monument, a striking example of socialist-era architecture nestled atop Buzludzha Peak in the heart of central Bulgaria. Born on April 3, 1929, in the capital city of Sofia, Stoilov's academic journey led him to the prestigious Moscow Architectural Institute, where he honed his architectural skills and developed a unique vision. Throughout the 20th century, he emerged as a key figure in the evolution of Bulgarian architecture and urban planning, contributing significantly to numerous architectural projects across the country. His influence also extended to governance when he served as the mayor of Sofia, and he played a pivotal role in the founding of the Union of Architects in Bulgaria, advocating for architectural progress and professional standards.

The Buzludzha Monument

Nestled atop the enchanting Buzludzha Peak in the majestic Balkan Mountains of Bulgaria, the Buzludzha Monument rises like an otherworldly vessel, a haunting echo of Bulgaria's socialist legacy, evoking both intrigue and controversy. Officially known as the "House Monument of the Bulgarian Communist Party," this striking architectural marvel is not merely a relic; it stands as a vivid symbol of Bulgaria's complex socialist past, stirring debates over the preservation of a bygone era.

A Journey Through History and Purpose

Commissioned at the zenith of Bulgaria’s communist regime, the Buzludzha Monument was inaugurated in 1981, serving as a monumental tribute to historical milestones. It commemorates two pivotal events: the foundational gathering of the Bulgarian Social Democratic Workers' Party in 1891, which ultimately transformed into the Bulgarian Communist Party, and the courageous armed resistance against Ottoman rule that shaped the contours of modern Bulgaria. Crafted by the visionary Bulgarian architect Georgi Stoilov, this monument was envisioned as both a ceremonial hub and an enduring symbol of national pride during a time of ideological fervor.

Design and Architecture: A Brutalist Masterpiece

The Buzludzha Monument is a quintessential example of brutalist architecture, characterized by its bold and imposing forms that command attention. The main structure, with its striking resemblance to a UFO, dramatically perches on a rugged mountain ridge, creating a surreal juxtaposition against the natural landscape. Towering 70 meters high, the structure is topped with a once-glowing red star — a potent emblem of communism visible from great distances.

Inside, an ambitious visual narrative unfolds across more than 1,000 square meters of stunning mosaics, skillfully crafted to portray socialist icons such as Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin alongside prominent Bulgarian figures like Todor Zhivkov. The circular hall is designed to enhance the sense of grandeur during gatherings, its vaulted ceiling amplifying the echoes of the past.

The monument was intended as a ceremonial space and a symbol of national pride under communism.

Decline and Abandonment: A Lost Glory

The fall of communism in Bulgaria in 1989 marked a turning point for the Buzludzha Monument. Once a vibrant symbol of ideological unity, it fell into neglect, its significance diminished in the wake of political change. The iconic red star was intentionally dismantled, and as the years wore on, the site became a shadow of its former self, exposed to the punishing elements of the mountain environment. Predatory looters and vandalism hastened its decline, stripping the monument of precious materials, including copper from the intricate mosaics.

Today, the Buzludzha Monument lies in a state of disrepair, with its once-bright mosaics now fading into obscurity and the structure itself teetering on the brink of collapse. Yet, amidst the decay, it endures as a haunting reminder of the grand ambitions and subsequent unraveling of Bulgaria's socialist narrative.

Cultural Significance and Ongoing Debate

Despite its deteriorating condition, the Buzludzha Monument draws inquisitive visitors from across the globe, its starkly beautiful and surreal silhouette captivating photographers, filmmakers, and historians alike. However, its future hangs in a delicate balance, caught between conflicting visions.

Proponents of preservation argue passionately for the monument's restoration, advocating for its transformation into a museum or memorial that honors Bulgaria’s cultural and architectural heritage. In contrast, critics view it as an extravagant memento of a troubling era, bearing little relevance to contemporary society.

Several international organizations, including the European Heritage Alliance, have shown interest in safeguarding this remarkable site. In recent years, limited initiatives have awakened to stabilize the structure and illuminate its storied past.

Legacy: A Multifaceted Symbol of Reflection

The Buzludzha Monument represents an intricate tapestry of ideals, excesses, and the eventual disintegration of Bulgaria's socialist dream. Whether it is preserved for future generations, repurposed into a new cultural narrative, or allowed to succumb to the encroaching elements, the monument continues to inspire contemplation on the intricate relationship between ideology, historical legacy, and artistic expression. Its unmistakable design ensures it remains a captivating focal point for architectural enthusiasts and those seeking to unravel the complexities of Bulgaria's tumultuous 20th-century history.

Georgi Stoilov: Honours List

• Honorary Professor of Tbilisi Technical University, Georgia (1984)
• Visiting Professor of US New York University (1985)
• Honorary Professor of the National Polytechnic Institute in Mexico (1985)
• Academician of the French Academy of Architecture (1985)
• Honorary Member of the Union of USSR Architects (1986)
• Honorary Member of the American Institute of Architects (1986)
• Honorary Member of the Federation of Mexico Architects (1986)
• Honorary Member of the Union of Spanish Architects (1986)
• Honorary Professor of Buenos Aires University, Argentina (1986)
• Honorary Member of the Royal Institute of Canadian Architects (1987)
• Honorary Member of the Union of Architects of the former Czechoslovakia (1987)
• Academician of the International Academy of Architecture (1987)
• Honoris Causa Doctor of Moscow Institute of Architecture, Russia (2001)
• Academician of the Russian Academy of Architecture and Civil Engineering (2001)
• Academician of the Russian Academy of Arts (2001)
• Academician of the Ukraine Academy of Architecture (2002)
• President of the International Academy of Architecture

The Brutalist architectural movement in Russia is characterized by its harsh, rough, and geometric designs, often described as resembling massive concrete spaceships. This architectural style, particularly popular in communist countries, is known for its stark and utilitarian appearance. Despite being criticized as too cold to be considered aesthetically pleasing, these imposing structures often manage to exhibit a captivating combination of sculptural beauty and unapologetic functionality.

Palace of Ceremonies (Wedding Palace), 1984

(Tbilisi, Georgia)

The Palace of Rituals, also known as the Wedding Palace, in Tbilisi was completed in 1984 and is considered a masterpiece by the architect Victor Djorbenadze. Similar to the cemetery complex, the wedding palace was designed to align life milestones with secular Soviet ideology, while also catering to the public's penchant for ritual. Djorbenadze envisioned a grand design for the wedding palace, incorporating features such as frescoes, a bell tower, and soaring interior spaces. Drawing on influences ranging from 1920s expressionism to medieval Georgian church architecture, the structure received mixed reviews from critics.

Makedonium – Ilinden Monument, 1974

(Kruševo, North Macedonia)

The Makedonium, constructed in 1974, stands as a powerful symbol of statehood and the enduring spirit of freedom for the Macedonian people. This remarkable structure, situated across 16 hectares of land, was skillfully designed by architects Jordan Grabulovski and Iskra Grabulovski. From its vantage point above the town of Krusevo, the Makedonium resembles a heart valve, topped with ten striking stained-glass skylights rising from its circular base. The monument complex's visual narrative unfolds as it begins with broken chains, leads into a crypt and a vibrant mosaic made of ceramic materials, and culminates in the distinctive building itself.

Druzhba Holiday Center Hall, 1984

(Yalta, Ukraine)

This futuristic building, overlooking the Black Sea, was designed by the renowned Soviet architect Igor Vasilevsky and completed in 1986. The architectural concept is heavily influenced by science fiction representations of future cities and the Soviet emphasis on maximizing public space in a futuristic style. Although the exterior of the building may seem imposing and angular, the interior features a spacious circular spa area that is bright and open. The distinctive spaceship-like design allows for private balconies and stunning views from most of the rooms. Additionally, the central area of the building houses social amenities including a saltwater pool, a cinema, and cafes.

The Bank of Georgia, 1970

(Tbilisi, Georgia)

The Bank of Georgia's headquarters is an 18-story building located on the outskirts of Tbilisi, the capital city of Georgia. It was completed in 1975 and originally served as the home of the Ministry of Highway Construction of the Georgian SSR. The building, designed by architect George Chakhava, is renowned for its distinctive appearance, which emulates stacked bricks and embodies the architectural principles of the Space City Method. This design concept aims to encourage greenery to flourish in and around the building. The structure comprises a grid of interconnected parts, with one part aligned on an east-west axis and two parts on a north-south axis.

The House of Soviets, 1970

(Kaliningrad, Russia)

Situated in the heart of Kaliningrad, The House of Soviets is a striking example of Russian brutalist architecture, designed by architect Yulian L. Shvartsbreim. Built on the site of the Königsberg Castle, which was heavily damaged during the Second World War, The House of Soviets holds great symbolic significance for the city. Although construction began in 1970, the building was never completed, yet it remains a significant urban landmark for the city's residents. Its distinctive shape has led to it is affectionately known as 'the face of the robot', as it bears a resemblance to a robot buried up to its neck, with only its face visible. 

The Faculty of Architecture Building, Belarusian National Technical University, 1983

(Minsk, Belarus)

Constructed in 1983, the Faculty of Architecture Building at the Belarusian State Technical University, also known as Building #15, the ship, or the airplane, is situated in Minsk. This remarkable structure was designed by architects I. Yesman and V. Anikin. At that time, the architects aimed to create a distinctive and memorable building, reflecting the principles of Soviet Monumentalism, without fully adhering to the preferences of the officials. Despite not being fully realized, it remains one of the most iconic buildings in both the city and the country.

Russian State Scientific Center for Robotics and Technical Cybernetics, 1973

(Saint Petersburg, Russia)

Established in 1987, the Russian State Scientific Center for Robotics and Technical Cybernetics, located in St. Petersburg, stands out as an iconic example of Soviet space architecture. Reflecting the prevailing theme of Soviet prowess in space exploration, the building's design, including a distinctive concertina-edged tower known as the White Tulip, is a testament to this ideology.

Het Poplakov Cafe, 1976

(Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine)

The Het Poplavok Cafe, constructed in 1976, can be found in Ukraine. Designed by architect Oscar Grigorievich Havkin, the building resembles a stationary flying saucer, seemingly suspended over the water, which creates a striking mirrored effect.

Founders of the Bulgarian State Monument, 1981

(Shumen, Bulgaria)

The Founders of the Bulgarian State Monument, built in 1981 to commemorate the 1300th anniversary of the Bulgarian Empire, was designed by Krum Damyanov and Ivan Slavov. Situated in the heights of the town of Shumen, the monument rises almost 1,500 feet above sea level and is visible from up to 18 miles away. The sculptors crafted the kings and heroes to appear as towering giants of stone, creating a powerful and enduring representation of Bulgaria's history. The figures are positioned in high corners of a geometric building with soaring walls, accessible by a stern concrete staircase.

Fyodor Dostoevsky Theater of Dramatic Art, 1983

(Novgorod, Russia)

In 1983, renowned Soviet architect Vladimir Somov designed the Theater with the goal of making dramatic arts accessible to the masses. Its construction coincided with the period of perestroika, leading to a veil of mystery surrounding its origins. The theater's intricate design, featuring Escher-esque hallways and concealed rooms, remains a hidden marvel, known to only a select few, while still serving as a vibrant arts venue to this day.

In approximately 400 BC, Persian engineers developed sophisticated methods for preserving ice amid sweltering desert climates. During the winter, they would amass substantial quantities of ice from neighboring mountains and store it in structures known as Yakhchals, or ice pits. These ancient refrigeration units served the dual purpose of preserving ice for summer use and safeguarding food in the hot, arid environment of Iran. Additionally, the ice was utilized to produce refreshing delicacies for royalty during the scorching summer months and to craft faloodeh, a traditional Persian frozen dessert.

Above ground, these edifices featured remarkable large mud brick domes, with some towering as high as 60 feet. Below the surface, they contained expansive chambers, some as spacious as 5000m³, incorporating deep storage areas. The storage spaces frequently featured access to a Qanat, or wind catch. They were equipped with a system of wind catchers that effectively reduced temperatures inside the chambers to frigid levels during summer days.

Yakhchals are ancient constructions with extraordinarily robust mud brick walls, reaching up to two meters in thickness at their base. These walls are erected using a distinct mortar known as sārooj, which is composed of a precise blend of sand, clay, egg whites, lime, goat hair, and ash. This unique mortar exhibits high resistance to heat transfer and is believed to be entirely impermeable to water.

The design of the Yakhchal incorporates substantial insulation and a system of continuously circulating, cooling waters that enwrap its sides. This ingenious design ensures that the ice stored within it remains frozen throughout the scorching summer months. In these desert communities, the ice houses also include a trench at the base to collect any melted water from the ice, allowing it to refreeze during the cold desert nights. The harvested ice is then fragmented and transported to deep subterranean chambers. The trench continues to collect additional water, facilitating the repetition of the process and guaranteeing a consistent supply of ice despite the harsh desert conditions.

1.  Design of the structure: The Yakchal had a dome shape with thick walls made of bricks and clay. This construction helped maintain a cool temperature inside the vault. 
2. Water collection: During the winter, water was collected from rivers or melting snow in the mountains. This water was directed towards the Yakchal through canals.
3. Freezing process: The water was distributed in small ponds or pools within the vault. During the night and in the coldest hours of the day, the water would freeze due to the low temperatures of the desert at night.
4. Ice storage: Once frozen, the ice was cut into blocks and stored in the lowest part of the Yakchal, where the temperature was coldest. The dome shape and natural insulation of the walls helped keep the ice frozen for many months.
5. Later use: During the summer, the stored ice was used to cool drinks, preserve food, or even for medical purposes if necessary. In short, the Yakchal took advantage of the natural cold of desert nights to create and preserve ice, using simple but effective storage and thermal insulation techniques.

Building adaptability

Throughout history, humans have always attempted to adapt buildings to changing climatic conditions, albeit through empirical means rather than standardized rules. For instance, during the winter, people commonly use carpets on floors and walls to retain heat within a room. Additionally, during the day, they would leave shutters open to allow sunlight to warm up the space, and at night, they would close them to reduce heat loss through openings. Climbing plants were also frequently grown on pergolas in traditional architecture to provide shade during the summer months, and deciduous trees were planted in strategic locations to protect building volumes from the sun. These are just a few examples of the many ways people have addressed climatic needs, showcasing their ability to adapt and innovate.

One notable example of such adaptability is the three-story Pelionian mansions. These buildings feature an intermediate floor designed for the winter, with few and small openings to retain heat, and a top floor intended for the summer, with ample and large openings to facilitate better ventilation.

This approach highlights the creativity and innovative spirit of people throughout history in adapting to their environment and addressing their needs.

Pelionian architecture 

Pelioreite architecture, seen in Pelion's homes, mansions, and churches, is a traditional style still used in modern projects. The old mansions in Pelion showcase unique and indigenous characteristics, using stones and slabs from the area, often sourced from local mines. The villages of Pelion were designated as protected settlements in 1980. Mansions in Pelion exhibit various architectural styles, including a northern Greek type and neoclassical influences brought by expatriates from Egypt. The houses are known for their thick walls, providing natural insulation. Pelioreite architecture is divided into three main periods and sections, each reflecting distinct characteristics and influences.

1st section

The initial phase represents the early "Peliorian Architecture" period from the mid-18th century, featuring stone structures with small, symmetrically placed windows and a prominent entrance. Typically, these buildings consist of three floors, with the lower one built of stone and the upper one incorporating a combination of stone and wood. The top floor often includes wooden cantilevers supporting open or closed balconies known as "balconies," a defining feature of Pelionian architectural houses.

2nd section

The second section pertains to traditional construction techniques and the evolution of mansion layouts from 1750 to 1850. The construction of urban mansions aimed to address fortification needs, resulting in communal semi-outdoor areas and reception spaces with distinctive features. The ground floor, known as "katoi," is exclusively constructed with stone, while the top floor is adorned with colorful skylights above the windows. The Joannou mansion, built around the mid-19th century, reflects a shift towards a more symmetrical appearance under "academic" influences.

3rd section

The third architectural period corresponds to the early flourishing of expatriate Pelioriteans and the emergence of "Late Pelioreite Architecture" from 1860 to 1890. This phase marks a transition to a contemporary lifestyle, incorporating academic elements and showcasing innovation. Central entrances are directly linked to long, narrow halls, with harmoniously arranged rooms on either side, representing a timeless change in Pelion architecture.

During the early 1930s, phonographs were introduced in Greece and were first seen in the living rooms of urban residents. However, their presence was not widespread. The production of records was a costly and complicated process which involved finding musicians, composers, and librettists to license the rights for recording on wax. The plates with phonographic imprints were then sent to European countries to create a copper matrix, a nickel-plated one, and a final matrix called the "child" before the phonographic disc could finally be produced. The sample of the finished product was then sent to Greece for approval, which increased the production costs and time to market.

In 1931, the announcement by the American Columbia Company that they would set up a headquarters in Greece caused a stir in Greek society. The construction of the Columbia factory in Rizoupoli in 1930 changed the recording scene in Greece, as records were now produced entirely in Athens, reducing expenses and allowing prices to adjust to the Greek market. The cost of a disc dropped from 120 to 80 drachmas, and the factory had the capacity to produce 300,000 discs per month, which was a substantial output at the time.

The factory was built on an area of 14 acres and was one of the most modern in Europe. It cost the American record giant £60,000 and was equipped with the latest achievements in industrial technology. The know-how gained from building previous factories was applied to Rizoupoli as it was Columbia's 27th factory worldwide.

The factory in Rizoupoli not only produced records for Columbia but also for companies that worked with the company, such as Odeon, Pate, and Parlophone. The businessman brothers Lambropoulos were appointed as general representatives of the company, and five years after the construction of the factory, the first recording studio was opened. Two new studios were built in 1963 to better serve the needs of Greek record production.

For six consecutive decades, Rizoupoli was the heart of the domestic music scene, except during the years of the Occupation. In 1977, Columbia ranked 75th among Greece's export businesses with exports of $5,000,000. In 1978 the factory employed 350 people and held 123rd place among industrial enterprises.

However, the gradual decline began in the mid-80s with the departure of the Lambropoulos brothers. The factory was finally closed in 1991 after one last printing of "Let's Go North" by Nikos Nomikos. The record was given to the 117 workers along with their compensation.

Today, the remains of the historical factory can be found on the Rizoupoli plot. Until 2006, the derelict facilities remained abandoned and unused, subject to the ravages of time. Despite the protests and appeals of the residents, the plans to build a museum of Greek music were never realized, and looters took advantage of the unguarded area, stealing equipment and machinery. In May 2006, all of the factory's buildings, except for one that was listed as a historic building, were demolished.

Adaptation in Nature

We live in a universe where everything changes, everything moves, and everything changes. Some objects change in a few seconds and others over centuries. Although change is not always apparent to us, it happens to everything around us. The climate on our planet is also in constant change and alternation, both during the year with the 4 seasons and during the succession of day and night. These changes are located in the temperature, in the days of sunshine and rain, as well as in the intensity - direction of the winds.

Adaptation is defined as the process of change by which an organism or species becomes better suited to its environment.

The differences in the above characteristics cause changes in nature with the result that all organisms change to adapt to the current climatic conditions. A typical example is deciduous plants and animals that go into hibernation, thus changing their metabolism. The most characteristic and obvious example of change in the animal kingdom is that of the chameleon, which can change the color of its skin to adapt to the color of the surrounding area to go unnoticed.

Man, as an integral part of this system, shows changes, both based on the geographical location of his residence and the seasons. Due to the different climatic data in different regions, acquired changes occur in humans, such as skin and hair color, or various morphological characteristics (such as nose shape, height, etc.). Changes are also observed in the language of people living in countries with different climatic conditions. People in warmer climates, for example, use more vowels in their speech than people in colder climates.

In given geographical locations there are also changes in human behavior, due to the seasons. Activities in areas where climatic conditions allow are mostly transferred to outdoor areas. For this reason, the "outdoor space" in climates such as Greece, acquires special importance during the warm months.

Adaptation of the building

People have always tried to adapt the building to changes in climatic conditions, albeit empirically, without relying on some standard rules of a manual. In winter, for example, it was common to place carpets on the floor and walls to trap heat inside. Also, during the day they kept the shutters open to absorb heat from the sun, while at night they closed them to reduce heat loss through the openings. In the traditional architecture of our country is common the phenomenon of planting climbing plants on pergolas. These plants were deciduous to provide shade only during the summer months. For the same reason, deciduous trees were planted in suitable places so that the building volume could be protected from the sun. Of course, the above are not the only ways to address climate needs, but they are strongly characterized by change.

One way of addressing the climatic needs, without morphological differences, is the example of the Pelion three-story mansions. In these, the mezzanine floor is the "winter" floor with few and small openings, while the top floor is the "summer" floor with large and many openings for its best ventilation.

Over the years and with the development of technology, the empirical ways of the past have been categorized and systematized. Some were replaced, such as the thermal insulation role of carpets, by thermal insulation materials inside walls and floors, some were removed due to the need for thick walls and some remained as they were. The biggest difference between modern and older homes is the ability to mechanically support heating and cooling needs to maintain thermal comfort using non-renewable energy sources.

The reckless use of non-renewable energy sources leads to two huge problems. On the one hand, the increase of CO2 and greenhouse gases, with the effects they have on the climate, and the other hand, the risk of depletion of these sources. This is why the bioclimatic design of buildings is becoming more and more necessary because it is based on the exploitation of renewable energy sources.

The adaptability of the building to climate change by providing Thermal Comfort to its users is expressed in 2 ways. Elements that morphologically change the building, thus dynamically influencing the composition of the building, which is the object of this work, but also fixed elements that do not aesthetically change the building.

The researcher