The Aspendos Theatre, located in Antalya, Turkey, is one of the best-preserved Roman structures from the ancient world. Built in the 2nd century AD during the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, this remarkable site has long captivated visitors with its impressive design and historical significance.

Aspendos was a prosperous city in ancient Pamphylia, known for its wealth and strategic trade routes. The theatre was commissioned by the city's benefactor, Zenon, and designed by the Greek architect of the same name to honor the gods and serve as a venue for cultural gatherings. It is a prime example of Roman engineering, showcasing a blend of functionality and beauty.

The theatre features a semi-circular auditorium with a seating capacity of 12,000 to 15,000 people, divided into two tiers: the lower tier for the elite and the upper tier for the general public. The two-story skene (stage building) includes intricate reliefs and columns, and its design enhances acoustics remarkably.

Thanks to the theatre's natural slope, whispers from the stage can be heard in the uppermost rows.

Preservation and Modern Use

The theatre has survived due to continuous use throughout history, including being repurposed as a caravanserai during the Seljuk period in the 13th century. Modern restoration efforts have ensured its preservation. Today, it hosts concerts and festivals, such as the Aspendos International Opera and Ballet Festival, attracting visitors from around the world. 

Nestled in the Taurus Mountains of southwestern Turkey, Sagalassos is a treasure trove of ancient history. Known as the "City in the Clouds," this ancient settlement offers breathtaking views and remarkable ruins that provide insights into its rich past. Sagalassos was a prominent city in the region of Pisidia, flourishing during the Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine periods. Archaeological evidence suggests that the area was inhabited as early as 12,000 years ago, but the city rose to prominence in the 3rd century BCE under the rule of Alexander the Great.

After Alexander's conquest, Sagalassos became part of the Seleucid Empire and later the Roman Empire, reaching its zenith in the 2nd and 3rd centuries CE. The city was known for its advanced urban planning, fine pottery, and grand architectural projects.

Architectural Marvels

Sagalassos is celebrated for its well-preserved ruins, many of which showcase the splendor of Roman engineering. Notable highlights include:

1. The Antonine Nymphaeum: A magnificent fountain adorned with intricate carvings and statues, the Antonine Nymphaeum once supplied water to the city and served as a symbol of prosperity.
2. The Roman Baths: These sprawling baths demonstrate the Romans' mastery of engineering and provide a glimpse into the daily lives of Sagalassos' citizens.
3. The Theater: Built into the hillside, this massive structure could seat over 9,000 spectators and offers panoramic views of the surrounding landscape.
4. The Bouleuterion: Serving as the city council chamber, the Bouleuterion reflects the administrative significance of Sagalassos.
5. The Upper Agora: The city's marketplace was the hub of social and economic life, surrounded by colonnaded structures and adorned with statues.

Rediscovery and Excavations

Sagalassos lay forgotten for centuries until its rediscovery in the early 18th century. Systematic excavations began in 1985 under the leadership of Marc Waelkens from the Catholic University of Leuven in Belgium. Since then, the site has revealed a wealth of information about ancient life, including pottery workshops, inscriptions, and burial sites.

Today, Sagalassos is recognized as part of Turkey's cultural heritage and is protected as an archaeological site and UNESCO World Heritage site. Visitors can explore its ruins, marvel at the surrounding natural beauty, and imagine life in this bustling city centuries ago. Efforts are ongoing to preserve its monuments and promote sustainable tourism.

Sagalassos stands as a testament to the ingenuity and resilience of ancient civilizations. Its ruins offer a window into a world that once thrived high in the mountains, making it a must-visit destination for history enthusiasts and travelers alike.

Alexander the Great's Conquest of Sagalassos

The conquest of Sagalassos by Alexander the Great in 333 BCE marked a pivotal moment in the city’s history, as it became part of the Hellenistic world. While much of Alexander's campaign in Asia Minor was characterized by swift victories, the encounter at Sagalassos proved to be a significant challenge.

At the time of Alexander's arrival, Sagalassos was a well-fortified city located in the Pisidian region. Its strategic position in the Taurus Mountains made it a natural stronghold. The Pisidian people were known for their fierce independence and warrior culture, and they resisted Alexander's advances. Unlike many other cities in Asia Minor that surrendered or were conquered with little resistance, Sagalassos mounted a strong defense.

Having recently achieved a major victory at the Battle of the Granicus River, Alexander was moving through southern Anatolia to consolidate his control. Capturing Sagalassos was crucial for securing a reliable supply line and demonstrating his dominance over the region.

The Siege of Sagalassos

The details of the siege are recorded in ancient accounts, notably by historians such as Arrian and Curtius Rufus. When Alexander approached Sagalassos, he faced strong resistance from the city's defenders. The Pisidian warriors were well-prepared, using the mountainous terrain and fortifications to their advantage.

Despite these challenging conditions, Alexander's forces showcased superior tactics and discipline. He employed his phalanx formations to overcome the defenders' initial resistance. The siege culminated in fierce hand-to-hand combat, with Alexander reportedly leading from the front, as was his custom.

After a prolonged struggle, the Macedonians breached the city's defenses. The fall of Sagalassos was a significant victory for Alexander, both strategically and symbolically. It sent a clear message to other cities in the region: resisting the Macedonian king was futile.

Following the conquest, Sagalassos was incorporated into Alexander's empire. Unlike some cities that suffered harsh reprisals, Sagalassos seems to have been spared from widespread destruction. This was likely due to Alexander's pragmatic approach; he often sought to win over local populations and secure their loyalty instead of destroying valuable urban centers.

Under Alexander's successors, the city thrived as part of the Hellenistic world. Its cultural and political integration into the Seleucid Empire enabled Sagalassos to prosper, eventually becoming a prosperous Roman city.

Archaeological Evidence of Alexander's Campaign

Recent excavations at Sagalassos have uncovered remnants of the city's fortifications and other structures dating back to the time of Alexander the Great. Although direct evidence of the siege itself is scarce, the urban planning and artifacts from the Hellenistic period demonstrate the influence of Alexander's conquest. The siege of Sagalassos highlights both Alexander's military prowess and the challenges he encountered during his campaign.

This site stands as a testament to the resilience of the Pisidian people and the transformative effects of Alexander's empire.

The underground city of Malakopi, also known as Derinkuju in Turkish, is a remarkable historic site nestled in the heart of Cappadocia, Turkey. This ancient city, dating back to the 8th-7th century BC, was accidentally discovered in the 1960s and stands as a testament to the remarkable ingenuity and resourcefulness of its ancient inhabitants. Carved meticulously into the soft volcanic rock, the city boasts an impressive 18 levels, reaching a depth of 85 meters below the earth's surface. Its intricate network of tunnels, chambers, and rooms covers a vast area of 445 km2, resembling a complex maze fit for an ant colony. What truly sets Malakopi apart is its remarkable capacity to accommodate a substantial population. Initially believed to be the largest underground city, it was thought to have the capability to house around 20,000 people.

However, recent archaeological discoveries in the Cappadocia region have revealed another underground city with the potential to accommodate up to 70,000 individuals.

Nevertheless, Derinkuju remains one of the most significant and awe-inspiring discoveries in the region. The city's layout exhibits a variety of rooms designed for accommodation, and storage, as well as small shrines and potentially educational spaces. The ingenious ventilation system was provided through well-designed air ducts, and water was sourced from a deep well, presenting strategic advantages for the city's inhabitants. Throughout its rich history, the underground city served various purposes, including acting as a refuge for civilians during times of war and conflict.

This captivating history and the impressive engineering of the underground city make it an irresistible draw for historians, archaeologists, and visitors, shedding light on the innovative ways ancient civilizations adapted to their environments and sought refuge in times of need.

Magna Graecia, also known as Megalē Hellas, refers to the coastal regions of southern Italy that were colonized by various ancient Greek city-states between the 8th and 5th centuries BCE. Although Sicily was also a region of Greek colonization, it is not typically included in this area. However, later writers, such as Strabo, did include Sicily, and the term even came to signify the entire Greek world. The original region extends from the Euboean colony of Cumae (probably the earliest and founded c. 740 BCE) to the Spartan colony of Tarentum (founded c. 706 BCE). The last colony to be founded was Heraclea in 433 BCE.

Greek colonists, following in the footsteps of the Bronze Age Mycenaeans, chose Magna Graecia as a suitable site for colonies due to the fertility of the land and its advantageous geographical position for trade, at the convergence point of the Greek, Etruscan, and Phoenician worlds. The colonies became a fully integrated part of the Greek world, as evidenced by the presence of votive offerings from Magna Graecia at the great religious sanctuaries of Delphi and Olympia. The amnesty (ekecheiria) enforced during the Olympic Games was also respected in the colonies, and the list of victors at Olympia includes many names from Magna Graecia. However, the region was not a single harmonious entity, for just as on mainland Greece, small city-states or poleis (quite independent from their founding mother-city) both competed and cooperated with neighboring cities to form a constantly shifting political network of rivalries and alliances. The region was also subject to greater political instability precisely because it was at the crossroads of several civilizations, and its wealth in natural resources meant that territory was often enviously regarded, particularly by the tyrants of Sicily. The poleis were also unstable internally due to their cosmopolitan mix of races - locals, colonists, mercenaries, residents from neighboring areas, etc.

Temple of Castor, Agrigento

Amongst the most important poleis of Magna Graecia (with founding city and date) were:

• Cumae (Euboea, c. 740 BCE) was the earliest Greek colony on the Italian mainland and founder of new cities such as Neapolis, which from 421 BCE became the most important city in Campania.
• Sybaris (Achaean/Troezen, c. 720 BCE) had a reputation for luxury based on its rich agriculture and was itself the founder of Poseidonia (Paestum).
• Croton (Achaean, c. 710 BCE) where Pythagoras founded a religious community in 530 BCE.
• Tarentum (Sparta, 706 BCE) is blessed with the best harbor on the southern coast, the presence of Tarentine coins and goods across southern Italy is testimony to the city’s prosperity and trade network. 
• Elea (Phocaea, c. 540 BCE) is famous for its Eleatic school of philosophy.
• Thurii (Athens, c. 443 BCE) was the place of the historian Herodotus’ retirement.
• Heraclea (Tarentum, 433 BCE) seat of the Italiote League from 387 BCE.

The late 5th century BCE saw increasing conflict with the indigenous population, particularly the Oscan tribes based in the Apennine Mountains. These peoples were increasingly pushed into the fertile plains and so came eventually to overrun the poleis through mass immigration. However, in a reverse effect, the political and cultural model of the poleis also loosened the original cultural and political bonds of these indigenous populations so that they became in a certain sense "Greek" - the polis system, Greek architecture, art, religion, and even language were all readily adopted. In the following centuries, the area came in increasing contact with Rome, and by 89 BCE all of the surviving cities of Magna Graecia came fully under Roman control.

Magna Graecia - ancient colonies and dialects

Alexander the Great was a renowned conqueror who accomplished much during his lifetime. He overthrew the Persian Empire and laid the foundation for the Hellenistic kingdoms. However, many stories about him have been exaggerated over time. In fact, during his lifetime, people told fantastical tales about him, which later evolved into legends with Alexander as the hero. Nonetheless, some historical accounts of Alexander's life are not exaggerated, such as his success in establishing cities. Some of the cities he founded still exist today.

Alexander's biographer Plutarch of Chaeronea states that Alexander the Great founded no less than seventy towns, but this is exaggerated. Alexander founded some twenty towns (poleis). Plutarch must have included all the permanent military garrisons (katoikiai), and the temporary military settlements (phrouria). Other towns were repopulated or just renamed.

Alexandria ad Aegyptum

The fortress in Alexandria, Egypt.

Alexandria ad Aegyptum was founded by Alexander the Great in 331 BC as his new capital, but he died before his plans could be realized. Ptolemy I Soter continued the plans, making Alexandria the capital of the Ptolemaic kingdom. It became a thriving cultural and economic center, with a population of over half a million by the 3rd century BCE. The city's extensive library attracted curious minds from all disciplines.

Alexandria ad Issum

Iskenderun, Turkey.

Alexander the Great founded Alexandria ad Issum in 333 BCE after winning the Battle of Issus against the Persian King Darius III. The city, also known as Alexandretta, Iskenderun, and Little Alexandria, no longer exists, but it was likely situated near modern-day Iskenderun on the Mediterranean coast of Turkey.

Alexandria Eschate

Khujand, Tajikistan.

Alexandria Eschate was founded by Alexander the Great after conquering regions previously part of Persia. It was significant due to its central Asian location and was Alexander's northernmost city in Central Asia. Before Alexander's arrival, many Greeks and Persians were living there in exile, providing him with a good starting population. Although the city doesn't exist anymore, its remains can be found in the citadel in Khojand, Tajikistan.

Alexandria Ariana

Citadel of Herat, Afghanistan.

Alexandria Ariana, founded by Alexander the Great, was established after the fall of Alexandria Eschate during his invasion of Persia and Central Asia. Historians estimate that the city was located in modern-day Herat, Afghanistan, and would have been of great strategic and economic significance.

Alexandria in the Caucasus

Mountains of the Hindu Kush, Afghanistan-Pakistan border.

Alexander the Great founded Alexandria in the Caucasus in 329 BCE during his conquests. The city was located at the base of the Hindu Kush mountains and was a significant communication point. Alexander populated the city with 7,000 Macedonians, 3,000 mercenaries, and people from other cultures. He also ordered the construction of forts to strengthen his control over the city.

Alexandria Arachosia

Kandahar, Afghanistan.

Alexandria Arachosia, also called Alexandropolis, was founded by Alexander the Great in modern-day Afghanistan. It was a strategic move as it was located in the middle of the Silk Road. The city is still standing today and is known as Kandahar. Its remains can be found in the Old Kandahar citadel.

Legacy of Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great founded over 20 cities during his conquests, which marked the beginning of the Hellenistic era, spreading Greek culture worldwide. Some of his cities still exist today, like Kandahar and Herat. The Hellenistic period produced beautiful art and architecture thanks to Alexander's conquests.

List of cities founded by Alexander the Great

1. Alexandrupolis: founded in 340 by the crown prince. This was a Greek city, built among the Maedians, a tribe on the banks of the Strymon. It must have been somewhere in the neighborhood of modern Sandanski in Bulgaria.
2. Alexandria in Troas: a town near Troy, founded in the Spring of 334. It may have been founded by one of Alexander's successors.
3. Alexandria by the Latmus: a town in Caria, maybe founded as a garrison or military settlement in the winter of 333. Probably, it was founded by one of the successors of Alexander, who named it to the former king.
4. Alexandria near Issus: Probably a permanent garrison where veterans of the battle of Issus could begin a new life, together with local inhabitants. Modern Iskenderun in Turkey.
5. Tyre: repopulated with Greek emigrants and natives in 332/331, together with a permanent Macedonian garrison.
6. Gaza: repopulated with European emigrants and natives in 331, together with a permanent Macedonian garrison.
7. Alexandria: the site was chosen in January 330; the city was founded on 7 April. This was an entirely Graeco-Macedonian city, although there was also a native quarter and a Jewish quarter. The Jews and natives were second-class citizens (text).
8. Alexandria in Aria: perhaps, the Arian capital Artacoana was repopulated with natives and Macedonian veterans in September 330. It was probably meant as a permanent garrison. Alternatively, this was a completely new town. Modern Herât in Afghanistan.
9. Prophthasia in Drangiana: the Drangian capital Phrada was just renamed in October 330; "Prophthasia" means "Anticipation". Modern Farâh in Afghanistan.
10. Alexandria in Arachosia: the Arachosian capital Kapisa was repopulated with natives and Macedonian veterans in the winter of 330/329. It was a permanent garrison. Modern Kandahâr in Afghanistan, which still bears Alexander's name (derived from Iskandariya, the Arabic and Persian rendering of "Alexander").
11. Alexandria in the Caucasus: the Gandarian capital Kapiša-kaniš was repopulated with 4,000 natives and 3,000 Greek and Macedonian veterans in March 329. It was a permanent garrison or a Greek city, although many settlers felt that it was a punitive colony. Modern Chârikâr near Kabul in Afghanistan.
12. Alexandria Eschatê: founded in the Summer of 329 as a permanent garrison on the Jaxartes (Syrdar'ya). Settled with Macedonian and Greek veterans and native serfs. Modern Khodzent in Tajikistan.
13. Alexandria on the Oxus: re-foundation of a Persian city, settled with Greek and Iranian veterans and native serfs. Probably modern Ai Khanum in Afghanistan. Probably founded in the Spring of 328.
14. Six cities north of the Oxus. Populated with native prisoners of war who served as serfs for the Macedonian soldiers. Meant as permanent garrisons, together forming a kind of wall against the northern tribes, the Sacae. One of these cities may be identical to modern Termez in Uzbekistan.
15. Alexandria in Margiana: re-foundation of a Persian city in the oasis of Mary in modern Turkmenistan. Settled with Macedonian, Greek, and Iranian veterans and native serfs.
16. Arigaeum: the Aspasian capital was repopulated with natives and Macedonian veterans in the Spring of 326. It was a permanent garrison. Modern Nawagai in Pakistan. In the neighborhood were several temporary military settlements: Bazira, Ora, and Massaga.
17. Nicaea and Bucephala: twin foundation of permanent garrisons on opposite banks of the Hydaspes (Jhelum), founded in May 326 on the battlefield. Settled with Greek, Macedonian, and Iranian veterans and natives. Modern Jhelum in Pakistan? The towns had large dockyards, which suggests that they were meant as a center of commerce.
18. Alexandria on the Hyphasis: founded in July 326 on the eastern border of Alexander's empire. Settled with veterans of unknown origin.
19. Alexandria on the Indus: founded in February 325 on the confluence of the Indus and the Acesines (Chenab), probably on the site of an older, Persian settlement. Settled with Thracian veterans and natives. Uch in Pakistan. It had large dockyards, which suggests that it was meant as a center of commerce.
20. Another town on the Indus: founded in the Spring of 325 among the Indian Sogdians. Probably a temporary military station north of Rohri.
21. Patala ("naval base") or Xylinepolis ("wooden city"): a temporary military settlement, founded in July 325 at the place of an earlier, Indian town. Vacated after September 325. Modern Bahmanabad, 75 kilometers north-east of Hyderabad.
22. Rhambacia: a town among the Oreitians that was fortified by Hephaestion and Leonnatus in the Autumn of 325. If it was meant as a permanent garrison, it was soon vacated. Modern Bela in Pakistan.
23. Alexandria in Carmania: if this city was founded by Alexander (and not by Seleucus), it must have been a permanent garrison founded in January 324. Perhaps modern Golâshkerd in Iran.
24. Alexandria in Susiana: not far from the mouth of the Tigris. Probably settled with Macedonian, Greek, and Iranian veterans and natives. Later known as Spasinou Charax. In the neighborhood of Al Qurnah in Iraq.

References

• "Sacred Astronomy", George Baltoyannis - ed. Esoptron 2008
• "Alexander's City Foundations". Livius.org.
• Isidoros of Charax, Parthian Stations, §1.2
• Wikipedia .org
• WorldAtlas .com

The Arch

One of the Architectural problems of the Ancient world that concerned architect and author George Baltoyannis as a student of Architecture in Rome, was the Arch, specifically the Architectural solution to supporting large openings in construction. According to his professors, the Arch was a Roman invention, unknown in the Ancient Greek World, but having visited many Greek archeological sites, something did not feel right. We had all witnessed the use of the Arc in Greek temples and constructions, long before the Roman Civilization. Could it be that George’s old university professors were wrong?

Could the Arch be a Greek invention after all?

Ancient point of view

The false belief that the arch was a Roman invention, unknown in the Ancient Greek World still prevails today as I discovered during a recent trip to southern Italy. I decided to investigate this matter further to determine the truth. I investigated with the eyes of the Ancients and uncovered unknown places and secret cults that played a crucial role in shaping the architecture of the time. These cults formed a cosmic standard with axes and shapes through which the ancient satisfied their religious needs. They attempted to convert theory into action, with structures and symbols, placing sacred temples in specific points with axial relations between them. Art was an integral component of a global logic that worked together as a whole.

To solve the problem of the Ancient Logic, one must use the findings and imagination and put oneself into "their shoes". It is like using a modern PC only as a calculator. I realized that this approach increased the success of amateurs over professionals, as in the case of Schliemann. I became more confident after reading the fantastic effort of the volume "History of the Greek Nation" in the past. However, after conducting my research, I found some key differences in the results, and something is amiss. Sixteen volumes, about 10,000 pages, are based on 159 collaborators, including archaeologists, historians, and philologists, and only report one architect and one mathematician, leaving out the other professionals for 101,941 years.

However, we know of at least 754 Ancient Scientists, of whom 117 were architects, and they were structurally implementing the theories of the Ancient Greeks for 1,200 years. Moreover, the architect of that time was a painter, sculptor, engineer, etc. The architect of today has the most comprehensive training and profound knowledge of the past through the history of art, the present constructing buildings, and the future by processing future proposals. Building design, static knowledge, functional needs design, interior design, in-depth knowledge of materials, topography, mathematics, prospectively, construction details, social structures knowledge, and a thousand other things result in a piece of global knowledge.

When the profession of the architect is absent, individual analyses of archaeological findings, historical facts, or philosophical thinking may be possible, but the system does not work spherically, especially when other professions are missing in the analysis process.

The prevailing opinion worldwide is that the architecture of the Greeks is only the linear surface with rhythms - Doric, Ionic, Corinthian - and formulas, such as Prostyle Amphiprostyle, Pavilion, Dipteral, etc. I was curious to study the subject of construction knowledge of the Ancient Greeks and, based on tireless researchers' ideology, covered the gaps in the area of Greek knowledge while taking into account colleagues' views and professionals in other scientific areas.

Odeon of Herodes Atticus, Athens

During my investigations, I kept falling on puzzles and riddles that opened access to other spaces. I walked into a Labyrinth of Knowledge whose road was not closed in front of me, and I followed it. When I looked into the problems with the eyes of the Ancient entering their mentality, I saw solutions. I used Pythagoras as a key to open latched doors and understand the symbolism of the Sacred Temples. The Labyrinth led me to a circular space where I saw seated people dressed as Greeks, watching in agony there in front of me, the Goathorned.

I bit my lips because I realized that the Goathorned actor was playing Dionysus Revelation.

Greek architecture

Greek architecture refers to the ancient buildings designed and developed by the ancient Greek cities and civilizations that existed throughout the Greek mainland, Peloponnese, Aegean Islands, and Greek colonies in Anatolia and Italy. These buildings were constructed as early as 900 BCE until the first century CE, though most of the earliest remaining works from the period date to around 600 BCE.

Ancient Greek architecture encompasses everything from monumental stone temples to domestic houses.

The Greeks have had a profound legacy in philosophy, politics, art, science, and architecture. Their architectural advancements can be divided into multiple periods such as the Mycenaean Age, the Greek Dark Age, the Greek Archaic period, the Greek Classical Age, and the Hellenistic period. Each period brought significant changes to Greek architecture. The archaic period saw the development of columns, sloped roofs, and porticoes. The Classical Period saw the maturation of Greek design and the creation of famous structures such as the Parthenon.

The three styles

Greek architecture is part of classical architecture, which includes Roman architecture. The Greek style is known for its uniformity, simplicity, proportions, and harmony. They built various public buildings, including theaters, stadiums, and temples to honor the Olympic gods. However, Greek temples were often not necessary for worship; the altar was the most important element. Temples were only necessary if they housed a statue of a cult god.

In ancient Greek architecture, there are three distinct styles of column-based design known as the classical orders: the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Each order has unique characteristics such as differing proportions and decorative details. The entablature is the superstructure of moldings and bands that lies horizontally across the columns, and it is subdivided into three parts: the architrave, the frieze, and the cornice.

The three classical orders of ancient Greek architecture are Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. The Doric order has simple, unadorned columns without a base and it was used mainly in mainland Greece and areas to the west. The Ionic order has slender columns with spiral scroll-like ornaments and a continuous horizontal frieze. The Corinthian order is the most ornate and sleek, with decorative capitals that include acanthus leaves. It was favored during the Hellenistic period and is mostly visible in Italy now.

Greek architecture trademarks

Ancient Greek architecture is fascinating for its optical refinements, entasis, and curvature, which correct optical distortions. Entasis involves a slight swelling in the middle of the shaft, while curvature refers to having no straight lines in monumental stone Greek architecture. These refinements not only correct optical distortions but also give the architecture vitality.

A stunning exhibition organized by the National Geographic Institute celebrates 5,000 years of Greek culture.

About the Exhibition

This summer, National Geographic will present an extraordinary cultural experience in Washington, D.C. THE GREEKS: Agamemnon to Alexander the Great is a remarkable journey through 5,000 years of Greek history and culture. The exhibition showcases over 500 priceless treasures, many of which have never been displayed outside of Greece. Washington, D.C. is the exclusive east coast venue for this exhibit, and it is expected to attract visitors from New York to Richmond. This exhibit is the largest and most comprehensive survey of Greek culture in a generation. Featuring collections from 22 national museums in Greece, THE GREEKS tells the unique story of one of the world’s greatest ancient civilizations. Visitors will encounter the early origins of Greek writing and art from the Cycladic and Minoan cultures of the Aegean, meet the Mycenaean rulers and priestesses, the warriors of Sparta, the heroes, athletes, and philosophers of Classical Greece, and Alexander, the king who spread Greek culture throughout the world—giving rise to civilization as we know it. The exhibition explores pivotal moments that led to the birth of Western democracy, modern art, science, medicine, theater, and sports.

Athens is awash with ancient wonders, from theaters and temples to the mighty Acropolis and Greek mythology can be closely tied to many of these sites. These are four famous tales of Hellenic mythology!

1. Athena and Poseidon compete over the patronage of Athens 

Site: Erechtheion 

While the East Pediment of the Parthenon depicts the dramatic moment of the birth of Athena, the West pediment celebrates her victory in the contest with Poseidon for control of Athens and Attica. The first king of Athens, King Cecrops, set out the competition to establish a patron deity for his city-state. Athena and Poseidon both desired to be the patron of Athens and to settle the rivalry a contest was suggested, the winner of which would come up with the best present to the city. When Poseidon struck the Acropolis with his trident he created a salt-water well, the so-called “sea” of the Erechtheion, which lay inside the temple and is said to make sounds of waves whenever the wind blows from the south. Athena thrust her spear to the ground in her turn, and a fruitful olive tree appeared. In the end, Athena was chosen as the winner, while the temple Erechtheion was built to soothe the raging Poseidon and prevent him from flooding the city. 

2. Athena is born out of the head of Zeus 

Sites: Acropolis and Temple of Hephaestus 

Zeus was notorious for his insatiable nature when it came to romantic adventures. For some time Zeus pursued and finally seduced Titaness Metis, impregnating her with Athena. Zeus, having been previously warned by the Oracle of Gaea that Metis’ second child would be a boy who would overthrow him (as had happened to Zeus’ father and grandfather), swallowed Metis with Athena inside. After a while, Zeus developed an enormous headache and howled so loud that the whole Earth could hear him. The other gods came to help him, and Hephaestus – the blacksmith god, struck Zeus’ head with his hammer, out of which Athena, in her full gown and armor, emerged. The Temple of Hephaestus is situated overlooking the Agora, a marketplace of ancient craftsmen. The east pediment of the Parthenon in Athens’ Acropolis is decorated with plasterwork showing the birth of Athena, who later became a patron of the city (see Myth 1, above).

3. Zeus cheats on Hera 

Site: Temple of Zeus 

Zeus had numerous love affairs before and after his marriage to his sister Hera. He had affairs with goddesses, Titaness, nymphs, and mortal women including Demeter, who bore him Persephone, Mnemosyne, who created the twelve Muses, and the mortal Alcmene, mother of Heracles. Hera raged with constant jealousy and directed her anger at Zeus, his offspring, and his mistresses. She was the one who incited the Titans to tear Zeus’ son Dionysus apart, and she was the one who drove Heracles mad so that he killed his beloved wife and children. Despite his reputation among the deities, Zeus was worshipped by mortals, and in Athens, though only a few columns remain of the Temple of Olympian Zeus, it’s still possible to imagine the colossal structure in its full glory — a fitting tribute to the king of the Olympian gods. 

4. Birth of Dionysus 

Site: Theater of Dionysus 

Dionysus was the son of Zeus and Semele, a mortal famous for her extraordinary beauty and grace. Zeus was deeply in love with Semele, and to please her, he swore upon the sacred river Styx to make her every dream come true. However, Semele was persuaded by a vengeful Hera to ask Zeus to come in his true godly form. It saddened Zeus, who knew that a mortal who sees a deity in all his glory was cursed to die, but having promised Semele to fulfill her every whim, he was left with no choice. He appeared in his natural form and immediately the beautiful Semele was wrapped by fire, burning her body to death. Zeus, however, did manage to rescue Dionysus by stitching the fetus into his thigh to hold him until he was ready to be born. The Theater of Dionysus sits on the south slope of the Athenian Acropolis. Dating back to the 4th century BC, the structure could seat a staggering 17.000 spectators and was used to host festivals in honor of Zeus and Semele’s tragic love child. Indeed, the advent of the theatrical genre of tragedy is largely attributed to ancient Greek playwrights, undoubtedly inspired by the dramatic misadventures of their deities.

Temple of Apollo Epicurius at Bassae: collectible documentary before the temple is covered! It is the first film about the temple of the epicurean Apollo that Iktinos built on top of a mountain.

The director (Jean-Daniel Pollet) was enchanted and said that this temple was the center of the world for him. So he filmed him with the rhythm of a sacred ritual and the result rewarded his efforts. The temple is built mainly with limestone stone and is without the statue of the god Apollo. Impressed by the charm of the archaeological site of Basso, the excellent director Jean-Daniel Pollet, as soon as he discovered it, found an existential refuge saying "Here you can exist".

He characterized the place as the unheard end of magic and for a decade considered it the center of the world. He visited it many times and three of his films have references to the temple of the Epicurean Apollo. One of these "Vasses" is dedicated to the temple. It is a cinematic poem. The director himself has described his relationship with Vasses as follows: "I first saw the temple of the Basses while circumnavigating the Mediterranean. So I have to say why I left, why I did this round. I had marked the temple in a lithograph (not a photo) of some book because it said that it was the only one built on the heights of the Peloponnese and without a view of the sea.

He also wrote that this temple was the last work of the architect of the Parthenon. This work, in its tiny dimensions compared to the Parthenon, gives the impression of someone who has grown old, who no longer has arrogance, who is almost no longer Greek, but only knows how to build like a Greek. Besides, the stones used to build this temple were quarried from this same area; you can see that they are gray like the others that are around. In other Greek temples, a specific marble was used, from a specific quarry, but I believe they all had more or less the same origin, the same color, the same density, and the same strength.

For Vasses, there is undoubtedly evidence – I could know more if I had studied the temple's history more thoroughly. Of course, they will be written somewhere. What I gathered was that it was built to ward off a famine, a disease (perhaps plague) that, at the time, had ravaged the area. Many clues support this guess, but I don't remember them anymore.

I remember, however, another peculiarity: usually, in the center of each temple there is a place where a statue is inserted: the statue of some god to whom the temple is supposed to be dedicated (Apollo, etc.). Well, there was no such pedestal in Vasse. I thought it might be some kind of atheistic temple, but it was probably airborne. I was told that all Greek temples had the same orientation – but this one is an exception. It's one of the few places I've been back to (at least seven times; five times, in fact, without a camera). It is a place that speaks to you, that Sollers says is full of the words of the dead, and the dead speak to him, they tell him the same things - like an echo. I filmed this temple once, quickly, two or three shots for the Mediterranean, and after two years I returned to Vasse for a short film. It was cloudy - a rare thing. The shoot lasted two days."

This film, shot in 1964 and awarded at the Paris Biennale in 1965, was never shown in cinemas. It's screening at the event "Epicurius Apollo by the Moonlight" was one of the rare ones and combined with the place where it was filmed and dedicated, it was a unique experience for the viewers.

The term “Greek” is an exonym while the term “Hellenic” and its other forms are endonyms. “Greek” is something foreigners use to describe us, but we call ourselves “Hellenes” (or “Ellines” in Greeklish). Our country is known in English as Greece but officially it’s the “Hellenic Republic” and when we compete in sports our shirt writes “Hellas”. This confusion between Greek and Hellenic comes from the name the Romans used for the Hellenes.

Greek

The term “Greece” comes from the Latin word Graecus (Graeci), which is derived from the Ancient Greek word Γραικός. It was an early Hellenic tribe that took their name from Graikos, the son of Zeus and Pandora II. This tribe then migrated to southern Italy (Magna Graecia). The great philosopher Aristotle was the first to use the term Graeci (Γραικοί) in 350BC, in his work Meteorology (or Meteorologica) when referring to Hellenes he mentioned:

The deluge in the time of Deucalion took place mainly in the Greek world, especially in ancient Hellas, the country around Dodona, and the Achelous, a river that has often changed its course. Here, the Selli dwelt, and those who were formerly called Graeci and now Hellenes.

Hellenism

When most English speakers say “Greek” today, they mean the people and culture associated with the modern nation-state of Greece. “Hellenism”, however, is something bigger. From ancient times, the language, culture, and values of the Hellenes have significantly impacted the world. Throughout history, non-Hellenic people have adopted and assimilated the values and aesthetics of the Hellenes. Through this contact, the culture of the Hellenes has not only transformed other cultures but has transformed itself. This relationship is Hellenism. An openness to new ideas and embracing beauty and truth wherever you find it are fundamental features of Hellenism. In short, Hellenism is rooted in the history of the Greek people, but it is bigger than Greek culture. It is part of humanity’s shared heritage.

Hellen, Macedon, Junan

According to Hesiod’s poem Theogony, written in ~700 BC, Graikos had three brothers. One of his brothers was named Hellen (Έλλην), the source of the adjective “Hellenic”. Another brother was named Macedon (Μακεδνός) becoming the name of the kingdom of Macedonia. This is confirmed in Strabo’s work, dating back to the first century BC. He states “What is now called Macedonia was in earlier times called Imathia. And it took its present name from Macedon, one of its early chieftains.” (Strabo, Book 7, fr. 11)

Similarly, the people of Asia called the Hellens after the first Hellenic tribe they met, the Ionians. So, we get to be called in Asia as "Junan" or something similar. This isn’t unique in the case of Greece though as there are many countries and many ethnic groups that have exonyms and endonyms. So, at different points in time, the words Graeci/Greek and Graecia/Greece were applied to all of the Hellenic people, in multiple different languages.

Last, there is of course a Greek word from Greek “Γραικός” and it’s known since antiquity though it was seldomly used in Greece. Today it’s generally not liked by Greeks and especially when used by foreigners could be considered offensive like the n-word when used by Caucasians.

The most commonly used word for “Greece” by country

The captivating tale of the ring in The Lord of the Rings draws inspiration from a fascinating Greek myth recounted by Plato in his work "The Republic." The parallel can be found in the myth of Gyges, which Plato narrates through the character of Glaucon.

The myth unfolds with the discovery of a magical ring by Gyges, a shepherd who stumbles upon it after experiencing a tumultuous storm and earthquake. This ring grants its wearer the power of invisibility when turned on the finger. Gyges harnesses this newfound ability to seduce the queen, slay the king, and seize control of the kingdom, all facilitated by the ring's gift of invisibility.

Through the character of Glaucon, Plato utilizes this myth to shed light on the essence of human injustice when shielded from facing repercussions. The myth challenges perceptions of justice and the struggle between personal interest and moral obligation, proposing that when granted impunity, individuals are inclined to prioritize self-interest and evade accountability.

Ultimately, the myth serves as an allegorical lesson, advocating for the pursuit of righteousness, beauty, and truth through enlightenment and education, urging individuals to combat malevolence and strive for the virtues of justice.